九州大学
英文和訳問題集

Dutch air carrier KLM uses AI to predict which passengers are most likely to miss their flights, reducing delays by keeping their bags more accessible for offloading. However, it still uses traditional analytic optimization techniques for many problems in revenue management, ground staff planning, flight scheduling, crew planning, and engine maintenance. Boeing uses AI to optimize routes when approaching or departing from airports. But, despite considerable advances in speech recognition, Boeing still uses old-school voice communication between controllers and pilots since tolerance for mistakes in that context is incredibly low and solutions would involve an entire industry ecosystem. [Importantly, not every AI experiment at Boeing becomes a method for solving business problems.]

Academic research suggests that our days are becoming increasingly jam-packed. An analysis of data by Harvard Business School found that the percentage of employed Americans reporting that they "never had enough time" rose from 70% in 2011 to 80% in 2018. The reasons for the rise in "time poverty" (as social scientists have termed it) are numerous and nuanced, but [corporate cultures that value busyness are at least partially to blame ― and in theory should also be easy to correct.]

Put simply, busyness, or the state of being busy, has become a status symbol. Research led by Columbia marketing professor Silvia Bellezza shows that people perceive others who are busy ― and who use products indicating they are busy (like a Bluetooth headset for multitasking) ― to be important and impressive. In addition, newly published studies led by psychologist Jared Celniker have found that [across the United States, France, and South Korea, people consider those who exert high effort to be "morally admirable," regardless of their output.] This is a notable change from bygone eras.

Mars is famous for its dust storms, which tend to form during summertime in the planet's southern hemisphere. Often they can grow to encompass a substantial region of the Red Planet. [For example, in January 2022, a dust storm covering nearly twice the area of the United States led to some of NASA's exploration equipment on Mars having to be powered down until the storm passed.]

Such loss of our digital culture could make it difficult for those in the future to understand how we lived. This is because [it is the small bits and pieces of a culture that we barely think about that often deliver the greatest clues and insights to archeologists and anthropologists studying past cultures.] The materials and process used to make an ancient clay pot, for example, tell us about the food culture of the society that made it.

It must be that our ancestors, for generations past, have suffered from periodic epidemics of measles, and we, in consequence, have gained a certain degree of immunity from it. On the other hand, [the Yahgans, though incredibly strong, and able to face cold and hardship of every kind and to recover almost miraculously from serious wounds, never had to face this evil thing, and therefore lacked the stamina to withstand it.]

But Fairbourne residents are refusing to accept that their community is lost to the sea and are furious they have not received any compensation or assistance from the council. Climate experts say that other coastal communities in the UK face a similar fate and that the government must put plans in place to support people who are forced to move because of climate impacts. [Some argue the UK could imitate models of flood management from other countries, such as the Netherlands, which has been battling rising water for centuries and has devised novel approaches to tackling the issue.]

This form of education system, however, will simply be preparing people for a life that no longer exists and for jobs that are no longer available, because obvious changes need to occur. People will need more education as they live and work for longer. This extra education will need to be spread out over time rather than be front-loaded at the beginning of life. [And if learning is no longer front-loaded then what needs to be learnt at the beginning must focus less on specific skills and knowledge and more on learning how to build the foundations for a lifetime of learning.] As the social philosopher Eric Hoffer remarked: 'In times of drastic change it is the learners who inherit the future.'

But, as science progresses, we are able to revise and improve on what we know. [We now know that there are several basic problems with the experimental set-up that suggest the claims that our unconscious fundamentally rules our behavior are significantly exaggerated.] However, the original findings are still fascinating even if they can't be used to claim our unconscious completely rules our behavior.

Figure 2 illustrates an important difference between bias and noise. [It shows what you would see at the shooting arcade if you were shown only the backs of the targets at which the teams were shooting, without any indication of the bull's-eye they were aiming at.]

The general property of noise just mentioned is essential for our purposes in this book, because many of our conclusions are drawn from judgments whose true answer is unknown or even unknowable. When physicians offer different diagnoses for the same patient, we can study their disagreement without knowing what troubles the patient. When film executives estimate the market for a movie, we can study the variability of their answers without knowing how much the film eventually made or even if it was produced at all. [We don't need to know who is right to measure how much the judgments of the same case vary.] All we have to do to measure noise is look at the back of the target.

We scored our study subjects' output using two criteria: fluency (the volume of ideas they generated) and flexibility (how many different kinds of ideas they came up with). [On average, the embarrassing-stories group well outperformed their counterparts, scoring 7.4 for fluency and 5.5 for flexibility, whereas the prideful group scored 5.9 and 4.6.]

Being open led to greater creativity. Thus, we propose a new rule for brainstorming sessions: Tell a self-embarrassing story before you start. [As uncomfortable as this may seem, especially among colleagues you would typically want to impress, the result will be a broader range of creative ideas, which will surely impress them even more.]

"By the morning of the full moon on May 18, 2019, as morning twilight begins, Jupiter will appear in the south-southwest about 23 degrees above the horizon and Saturn will appear in the south about 30 degrees above the horizon," NASA said in a statement. "[Venus will be rising about 7 minutes after morning twilight begins but should be visible low in the east-northeast until about 30 minutes before sunrise.] Mercury will not be visible, lost in the glow of the Sun."

That same night, I wrote my first short story. It took me thirty minutes. It was a dark little tale about a man who found a magic cup and learned that if he wept into the cup, his tears turned into pearls. But even though he had always been poor, he was a happy man and rarely shed a tear. So [he found ways to make himself sad so that his tears could make him rich.] As the pearls piled up, so did his greed grow. The story ended with the man sitting on a mountain of pearls, knife in hand, weeping helplessly into the cup with his beloved wife's murdered body in his arms.

Sleep disturbance is among the most common sources of health problems in many countries. Insufficient sleep causes many chronic and serious medical conditions that have an enormous impact on quality of life, not to mention the economy. [While no one knows why we sleep, it is a universal biological necessity; no animal with a brain can survive without it.]

[For such a simple but effective method of improving workers' error rate, the system continues to find itself largely confined to Japan.] Indeed, it is one of the many eccentricities of the Japanese workplace that do not impress Western workers. In the case of pointing-and-calling, Japanese commentators have theorized that Western employees feel "silly" performing the requisite gestures and calls.

Will PBL be as effective a learning tool when students, such as undergraduates, have less shared background knowledge that they can draw on to solve problems? [Without the depth provided by the long-established courses of study in traditional majors, isn't it possible that interdisciplinary studies students will be too inexperienced to make deep connections and original discoveries?] At this point, we simply do not know how effective PBL will turn out to be in practice.

Ecological systems are the products of the organisms that inhabit them. [All organisms, to greater or lesser degrees, interact continuously with their physical environment and with each other.] In some cases, their impact on ecosystems may be disproportionate to their size.

Problems may include mathematical information that is not always presented in an explicit form, and may also have multiple correct answers. These problems for tomorrow's world may consist of a full paragraph of text in which the mathematics information is embedded. Students are asked to make decisions based on their mathematical knowledge and the processes they carried out. Quite often, the problems include different kinds of representations, and sometimes also require students to search for additional information either using computers or other sources. [Computational problems may also differ from the traditional ones in asking students not only to carry out the computations but also to explain their reasoning and how they solved them.] Often, students are asked to solve the given problem in different ways, to suggest creative solution processes, and to reflect on and criticize their own solution and that of others.

In summary, [new types of mathematics problems that go beyond traditional problem solving are likely to be better adapted to preparing students for a real-life use of mathematics.] These types of problems refer to formal as well as to authentic situations, involve coordination of previous knowledge and experiences, include various representations and patterns of inferences, have one or multiple correct solutions, and prompt reflection on all stages of problem solving.

[There's nothing better than going out with friends for a meal, but even though you may all get on well, you also have a natural tendency to want to stand out from the crowd and not to seem to be following the herd.] Studies have shown that when people make a choice from a menu, whether it's for food or drink, and hear what other people have chosen first, they are much more likely to go for something different to the others.

This latter possibility offers exciting research opportunities for the future. As yet there has been relatively little work done on the psychology of those who misuse social media, but it seems that, [as in the real world, the best way to gain attention in social media is not to create artificial celebrity, but rather to achieve something of value in its own right that will bring with it personal distinction.]

There is one episode from the history of medicine that illustrates particularly well how an evidence-based approach forces the medical establishment to accept the conclusions that emerge when medicine is put to the test. Florence Nightingale, today a well-known figure, was a woman with very little reputation, but [she still managed to win a bitter argument against the male-dominated medical establishment by arming herself with solid, unquestionable data.] Indeed, she can be seen as one of the earliest advocates of evidence-based medicine, and she successfully used it to transform Victorian healthcare.

Nightingale set about transforming the hospital by providing decent food, clean linen, clearing out the drains and opening the windows to let in fresh air. In just one week she removed 215 handcarts of filth, flushed the sewers nineteen times and buried the carcasses of two horses, a cow and four dogs which had been found in the hospital grounds. [The officers and doctors who had previously run the institution felt that these changes were an insult to their professionalism and fought her every step of the way, but she pushed ahead regardless.]

"The case of anger," reports a team of Spanish scientists led by Neus Herrero, "is different because although it is considered or experienced as negative, based on findings of increased left brain activity it produces a motivation of closeness, or approach." [When we get mad, in other words, we "show a natural tendency to get closer to what made us angry to try to eliminate it."]

[There are clear survival benefits from being able to consider what might be as well as what is.] It gave humans the ability to assess risk, to make decisions based on what might happen, rather than reacting solely to the immediate threat. Seeing beyond the now brought us literature and religion, science and civilization.

Catastrophes can, and do, happen. [As humans or as communities and even whole societies, none of us are free from fate.]

What happens when the technology on which we depend is entirely taken away, when suddenly we have no means to communicate, or when we find ourselves alone in a strange new world ― maybe a desert, a jungle, or a mountain glacier? How this has come about in the first place is unimportant. Your light plane may have crashed on a short hop over the mountains to a remote lodge. You may have become separated from a trekking party in the mountains, or found yourself in a whiteout on a mountain trail. [To your disbelief, you find yourself with nothing other than the clothes you stand up in.] You are lost and alone, maybe presumed dead, and no one is looking for you anymore.

[Most social scientists take it for granted that a person's clothing expresses meaning.] They accept the old saying that "a picture is worth a thousand words" and generally agree that dress and ornament are elements in a communication system. They recognize that an individual's clothing can indicate either agreement or resistance to socially defined expectations for behavior.

In his article "Fashion," Georg Simmel observed that fashion, the latest desired appearance, allows for personal modification, enabling the individual to pursue competing desires for group identity and individual expression. [There is nothing that can completely satisfy the opposing principles of uniformity and individuality better than fashion.] The self is also an audience, and clothing allows individuals to view themselves as social objects.

But my wife and I had another view. To us, there was something more important. Stephen was on a team, and the team was still playing. [Whether he played or not was not a matter of great importance; the team needed his support.]

Results are all about finishing. You're probably aware of the old saying: Beginners are many; finishers are few. Increasingly, it seems, we live in a society of victims and quitters. The sheer number of people quitting their jobs, fathers abandoning children, and teenagers who don't even graduate from high school indicates that, at least in some situations, when things get difficult people simply quit. Of course, [there are circumstances in which making some of these decisions may be the best thing to do.] But in many situations, and for no good reason, people just don't have the motivation and stamina to finish strong.

A colleague of mine who was training for a marathon shared some excellent advice he received from a world-class runner. "When you 'hit the wall,' " the runner said, "and you feel like you can't go on, instead of focusing on your exhaustion and going into survival mode, lift up your head and pick up your pace." At first glance, that advice may sound ridiculously impractical. But on reflection, [it makes great sense.] By picking up the pace, you're really saying to yourself that you're not just going to finish; you're going to finish strong.

Of all the sources of electricity, one of the most mature and economically competitive is wind. And Denmark is the home of the modern wind industry. [When the Danes decided to support wind power, the cost of electricity produced this way was many times greater than that produced by fossil fuels.] The Danish government, however, could see the potential of wind power and supported the industry until costs came down.

Wind power is widely perceived as having a major disadvantage ― the wind doesn't always blow, which means that it is unreliable. It's true that the wind does not blow at the same place with consistent strength, but if you take a regional approach it is fairly certain that the wind will be blowing somewhere. As a result, there is a lot of redundancy in wind generation, for [often there will be several turbines lying idle for each one working at full strength.]

Pairs of chimps were brought into a testing room where they were separated only by a wire mesh. On one side was a bucket containing 30 tokens that the chimpanzee could give to an experimenter for a food reward. Half of the tokens were of one color that resulted in only the chimpanzee that gave the token receiving a reward. The other tokens were of a different color that resulted in both chimpanzees receiving a food reward. [If chimpanzees were motivated only by selfish interests, they would be expected to choose a reward only for themselves (or it should be 50-50 if they were choosing randomly).] But individuals were significantly more likely to choose the cooperative option.

This latter possibility offers exciting research opportunities for the future. [Chimpanzee society, like the greater scientific community that studies them, is built around such mutual exchanges.] Science is a social activity, and sharing the rewards from one another's research allows scientists to improve their work over time. Like the chimpanzees he would connect us with, Darwin recognized the utility of sharing rewards with others.

Timing is critical. If a good problem area is opened up, everyone rushes in, and soon there are diminishing returns. On unimportant problems, this same group behavior leads to a self-approving circle of papers on a subject of little practical significance. [Real progress usually comes from a succession of accumulative and progressive results, as opposed to those that feature only variations on a problem's theme.]

A new study, done at the University of Copenhagen, asked participants to perform a simple task ― watch videos of people passing balls and count the number of passes. But first they were presented with a distraction. One group of participants had a funny video come up on their screens; the rest saw a message telling them that a funny video was available if they clicked a button, but they were told not to watch it. After ten minutes, during which people in the second group could hear those in the first laughing at the video, everyone set to the task of counting the number of passes. And the curious result was that those who hadn't watched the comedy video made significantly more mistakes than those who had. You might have thought that those who had spent the previous ten minutes laughing would become distracted and careless. Instead, [it was the act of following company policy and not clicking that button that hindered people's ability to focus and concentrate.]

A more interesting solution, proposed by the Copenhagen experimenters, would be to create "Internet breaks," allowing workers to periodically spend a few minutes online. This may sound like a solution straight out of Oscar Wilde, who said, "The only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it." But it's actually a logical evolution of one of the great inventions of the twentieth century: the coffee break. [In the nineteenth century, letting wage-earners stand around drinking coffee would have seemed outrageous.] But, in the early nineteen-hundreds, a company introduced the idea of short breaks in the workday, and by mid-century it had become an accepted office custom.