神戸大学
中文和訳問題集

In research published last year, Argentine social scientist Federico Zimmerman and his colleagues asked 2,632 people to have a political discussion with a stranger and then rate how much they liked that person. Participants showed a strong preference for conversation partners who expressed more confident and ideologically consistent political views as opposed to those who did not hold firm opinions.

Unfortunately, a major limitation of these studies is their duration. They almost always have short monitoring periods. This is not because psychologists do not yearn to monitor their participants for longer. It is more a matter of time and resources. Running experiments over the course of several decades is challenging and expensive. This has made it impossible to determine if cognitive changes associated with learning how to play an instrument remain throughout a person's lifetime.

Overall, the researchers found that a significant positive relationship existed between playing an instrument and change in cognitive ability over time. More specifically, the more years and more hours of practice with an instrument that a person had, the more likely they were to show a positive cognitive change over the course of their life.

For reasons I still didn't understand, my parents hadn't been nearly as thrilled as I thought they'd be when I'd called to tell them about the trip.

"I know, sweetie, I know it's been a tough year for you. I just hope this all ends up being worth it for you. That's all."
"I know. So do I."

As an initial test of our idea, during the early stages of the COVID pandemic, we had participants rate to what extent they agreed with different coping strategies to relieve their stress.

Despite significant progress in this area, there are still millions of people who do not have access to safe drinking water. Everyday, millions of women and children have to walk long, and often dangerous, distances in order to collect water and carry it home. As is the case for food and land, access to clean drinking water and water for agricultural usage is unequally distributed.

In some regions of the world, water scarcity has already become a very serious problem. The situation will worsen dramatically in the decades to come if we continue to overuse, waste, and contaminate the resources available at local and regional levels.

"Okay, you're sick. That's not your fault. But not telling anyone. Keeping it to yourself this way, so we all get in the car, the whole day before us. That's not nice, Lucy."

During clear nights with a full moon, sand hoppers would naturally migrate towards the shore where they would encounter seaweed. Under our artificial skyglow, their movement was much more random.
They migrated less often, missing out on feeding opportunities which, due to their role as recyclers, could have wider effects on the ecosystem.

As researchers, we aim to unravel how light pollution is affecting coastal and marine ecosystems, by focusing on how it affects the development of different animals, interactions between species and even the effects at a molecular level. Only by understanding if, when and how light pollution affects nocturnal life can we find ways to mitigate the impact.

A lingua franca is a technical fix that helps overcome language barriers across a set of groups that is too large ― or too recently united ― to have a common language.

Marianne closes her eyes. He probably won't come back, she thinks. Or he will, differently. What they have now they can never have back again. But for her the pain of loneliness will be nothing to the pain that she used to feel, of being unworthy. He brought her goodness like a gift and now it belongs to her.

We can fight this problem in our everyday life by taking steps to combat climate change and pollution. Even so, we are faced with questions such as: Are we in time to fix it or should we also work on preventing this phenomenon? Are other animals disappearing that at first do not seem to be essential yet without whose activity we could not conceive life?

However, a recent study showed that because stereotype threat is triggered within educational contexts, it can be reduced through interventions to promote mathematics and science education, thus improving the educational pipeline leading to good careers in STEM.

For some three decades, digital technology has continued its never-ending march of progress, remaking and disrupting a wide range of industries. Looking at the efforts of organizations to transform themselves digitally today, we are going to examine some cases that investigated AI ethics.

The fact that species of such incredible abundance can decline as quickly as the white-rumped vulture did points to a counter-intuitive idea in conservation that common species may need protection just as much as rare ones do.

Industrial agriculture carries much of the blame for Europe's disappearing birds. "They've been taking out hedgerows, taking out trees, making fields bigger, increasing inputs of pesticides ― just essentially squeezing out the opportunities for wild organisms to live in those kinds of environments," Gaston told me.

"We could dye her hair. I believe there are dyes that wash out in a few months or so. That way, Muriel can really grow into her role as Alice. She can live and be Alice before opening night!"

A third trend, however, became the most significant in later Japanese Zen: to reach out as never before to every aspect of Japanese society. Hakuin Ekaku, generally considered the most important Zen master of the last five hundred years, was extraordinary in his abilities to connect with people of all ranks of life.

The scheme to build an electromagnetic shield in space is still at the conceptual stage. The engineering problems of building the thing and maintaining it essentially forever would be astronomical. However, the prospect of returning Mars to its former state as a warm, wet world where life could flourish is an appealing one.

The study is limited, of course, because it relies on a narrow, self-selected group of respondents to provide information about themselves, a topic on which people can be surprisingly unreliable. The published results also did not investigate such pressing active-commuting concerns as hygiene, showers or the logistics of carrying changes of clothes. But the study's results do indicate that time may be less of a barrier to active commuting than many might anticipate, says Melissa Bopp, the study's senior author.

The researchers ― Oliver M. O'Reilly, a professor of mechanical engineering, and Christine E. Gregg and Christopher A. Daily-Diamond, students who are pursuing a Ph. D. in mechanical engineering ― reported that the force of your foot striking the ground and the motion of your leg combine to help loosen and ultimately untie the knot of your shoelaces.

They ran two versions of the experiment. In one, the person was alone; in the other, two other people were also filling out the questionnaire. When alone, people took about five seconds to get up and panic. Within groups people took an average of 20 seconds to notice. When alone, the subject tended to go inspect the smoke and leave the room to tell the experimenter he or she thought something was wrong. When in a group, people just sat there looking at one another until the smoke was so thick that they couldn't see the questionnaire.

If you were to walk on a bridge and see a boy in the water screaming for help, you would feel a much greater urge to leap in and pull him to safety than you would if you were part of a crowd. When it's just you, all the responsibility to help is yours.

I picked up the phone book; I put it down. The idea of calling the police terrified me. I had just convinced myself that I ought to go and look for her, when the doorbell shattered the silence and my heart leaped up for joy.

Many American middle and high school students stumble into classrooms before the sun has fully come up. Some have forgotten their homework, many will fall asleep in class, and a few act as badly to their friends as to their parents. Most of these teens just aren't sleeping enough. A growing number of psychologists have felt so strongly about the problem that they've taken the lead in efforts to push back middle and high school start times.

Since the poll will be conducted by telephone, you define your population as people who live in the city and have telephones. Because it would take more time than you can spend to call everyone in the city that owns a telephone, you call 100 people.

He was an American and was clearly new to London and possibly to British humor.
"I was just joking," I said gently. Pointing to the many people standing on the platform with us, I continued, "We wouldn't all be standing here if there weren't really any trains."

The tasks are challenging, but they're not overwhelming. And while the self-restraints require careful attention, they're unlikely to trigger strong feelings of being deprived. The relative unimportance of the willpower challenges allowed participants to exercise the muscle of self-control without the internal stress that makes attempts to change difficult.

From a philosophical viewpoint, the idea that the world is full of selfish individuals clashes with many of the values we hold for human societies, such as cooperation, community spirit, and selflessness. Biologists do not think that individuals ever act for the good of the species, but there are many situations in which what appear to be selfish individual behaviors actually benefit a group.

Thirsty for national profit, nations, and their systems of education, are heedlessly discarding skills that are needed to keep democracies alive. If this trend continues, nations all over the world will soon be producing generations of useful machines, rather than complete citizens who can think for themselves.

When we meet in society, if we have not learned to see both self and other in that way, imagining in one another inner faculties of thought and emotion, democracy is bound to fail, because democracy is built upon respect and concern, and these in turn are built upon the ability to see other people as human beings, not simply as objects.

The beaks and feathers of birds, for example, set them apart from mammals and amphibians. Furthermore, variations in those traits differentiate one kind of bird from another. What allows some traits to vary so greatly, while other features remain relatively similar across a wide range of animals?

Developmental toolkits can be compared to Lego building blocks, because both dictate what can be built. A standard set of rectangular blocks, for example, can serve as building material for many unique structures, but nothing with truly rounded edges.

In the air, even in the clipped tree 10 yards from the window, they were nothing more than faint dots of color. Now they were in her kitchen, batting against the ceiling and the yellow walls she had just washed a couple of months ago.

All were good explanations. But then came the curveball. Country A was in fact Germany, and country B was. . . Austria. My poor students were puzzled ― what on earth could be so different about Germany and Austria? [...] Perhaps the rate of accidental death was higher in one than another, resulting in more available organs.

In languages as diverse as Arabic, Chinese, English and Hebrew, there is a correlation between the time required to pronounce numbers in a given language and the memory span of its speakers. In this domain, the prize for the efficacy goes to the Cantonese dialect of Chinese, whose brevity grants residents of Hong Kong an excellent memory span of 10 digits.

She escorted me upstairs, and after I was comfortably arranged in a double bed under a blissful load of pretty scrap-quilts, she returned to wish me goodnight, sweet dreams. I lay awake thinking about it. What an exceptional experience ― to be an old woman living alone here in the wilderness and have a stranger knock on your door in the middle of the night and not only open it but warmly welcome him inside and offer him shelter. If our situations had been reversed, I doubt that I would have had the courage, to say nothing of the generosity.

"But actions often have effects that their maker did not intend," said Professor Byrne. "So to understand the intended meaning, it's no good just discovering a gesture's typical effect. We have to look for what effect makes the signaler stop gesturing and appear satisfied with the outcome, to be sure that that was what they intended."

The results have provided clues about the origins of chimps' gestures, suggesting that they are a common system of communication across the species, rather than each movement being a learned custom or ritual within one social group.

One of the difficulties in learning science is in making distinctions that would not ordinarily be made in everyday life, such as the distinction between temperature and heat. Although the temperature of two ice cubes is the same, even if one ice cube is twice the size of the other, the effect that they have in cooling a drink is different.

A second difficulty in learning scientific concepts is that they often require reasoning about non-perceptible aspects of the physical world, and this may be another source of difficulty for students. People deal in everyday life with a world that is continuous, in which objects are solid and undivided. Yet, to understand many of the changes they observe in the world, it is necessary to develop a way of thinking that describes solid objects as bundles of 'particles,' 'molecules,' or 'atoms.'

"Listen," I said, reaching for words to crush her dream. "Figure it out, figure out the time. How long will it take to walk two thousand miles?" [...] "You should've read about the ones that didn't make it. Those stories are more important. Why they gave up is probably why you shouldn't be going."

"Here now," I said, pen working, setting numbers deep into the paper. "Let's say you walk, on average, some twenty miles a day. That's twenty into two thousand, right?"

The late nineteenth century was a rough time for frogs, worms, and a number of other creatures. As the study of physiology blossomed in Europe and America, scientists went wild dividing, dismembering, and relocating these unfortunate subjects. According to scientific legend, they also slowly heated some of the animals in order to test the extent to which they could adapt to changes in their environments.

The bottom line is that we have only a limited amount of attention with which to observe and learn about the world around us ― and adaptation is a very important novelty filter that helps us focus our limited attention on things that are changing and might therefore pose either opportunities or danger. Adaptation allows us to attend to the important changes among the millions that occur around us all the time and ignore the unimportant ones.

The question asked of each volunteer was whether the second event was caused by the passer-by's behavior towards the beggar. Most answered "no", the assumption being it was the shoelace, or the man's foot, or the car. But Baumard also measured how long each volunteer thought about the answer.

Baumard's interpretation, though he cannot prove it, is that the volunteers were indeed making a mental connection, during this extra thinking time, between the passer-by's actions and his subsequent fate.

I've taken classes in subjects I never thought I'd be interested in and as far away from my major as you can imagine. But you know what? I still remember those classes as if I were still taking them.