一橋大学
英文和訳問題集

Today, a different form of efficient design is eliminating "eyes on the street" ― by replacing them with technological ones. The increase in neighborhood surveillance technologies such as home security cameras and digital neighborhood-watch platforms and apps has freed us from the constraints of having to be physically present to monitor our homes and streets. ... Inside our homes, we monitor ourselves and our family members with equal enthusiasm, making use of video baby monitors, GPS-tracking software for children's smartphones ... [When debates arise over the threat such technologies might pose to people's privacy, critics often focus on the power of large corporations to control our personal data.] Or they focus on the role of personal security cameras and safety apps in racial profiling and discriminatory policing. But surveillance clearly provides benefits ― and means of abuse ― to far more people than Big Tech and law enforcement.

These are wildly popular technologies among private citizens. [We like to look at ourselves and to monitor others, and there are an increasing number of new technologies encouraging us to do just that.]

We can find mathematics at the heart of literature. The universe is full of underlying structure, pattern, and regularity, and mathematics is the best tool we have for understanding it. That's why mathematics is often called the language of the universe, and why it is so vital to science. Since we humans are part of the universe, it is only natural that our forms of creative expression, literature among them, will also manifest an inclination for pattern and structure. [That feeling we get when we read a great novel or a perfect poem ― that here is a beautiful thing, with all the parts fitting together perfectly in a harmonious whole ― is the same feeling a mathematician experiences when reading a beautiful proof.]

Whatever the cause of our heightened mental abilities, we continued eating meat and getting smarter, better with tools and better able to keep ourselves alive. [Then, around 12,000 years ago, our hunter-gatherer ancestors started to raise animals, grow crops and build permanent settlements, or else were driven out by humans who did.] Our diet changed.

The rich were different, of course, with the resources to dine as they pleased. And not just royals and aristocrats: In 18th-century England, as incomes rose, an ambitious middle class began to claim some of the same privileges as their supposed social superiors. ... [Those not so fortunate as to control their own lives had to make do, as the British poor had done for centuries, with mostly oatmeal, perhaps with some vegetables.] So meat was not merely a food ― it was a symbol. To eat it was to announce one's mastery of the world.

When it comes to people's personalities, however, sound is not a reliable guide at all. Sidhu, Pexman, and their collaborators tested whether there was a link between a person's name and their personality, perhaps because the round or spiky sound of the name became attached to the wearer. They found no such association. "People worry about baby names. It's this expectation that the label matters so much," Pexman says. "Our data would suggest that [although that's what we think, if you call the kid Bob, they're not any more likely to end up with one set of personality characteristics than another.]"

In the post-Cold War world, authoritarian regimes were particularly vulnerable to nonviolent challenges from below because they needed to maintain the show of respect for human rights in order to please their democratic allies and patrons. For instance, Egypt's dependence on foreign assistance meant that when revolution broke out in 2011, the Egyptian military willingly accepted scrutiny from liberal democracies such as the United States. Without an activist United States, and more broadly, [without powerful champions of human rights who have real influence over undemocratic regimes, we would expect greater brutality against nonviolent protesters.]

Second, contemporary movements tend to rely too heavily on mass demonstrations while neglecting other techniques ― such as general strikes and mass civil disobedience ― that can more forcefully disrupt a regime's stability. Because demonstrations and protests are what most people associate with civil resistance, those who seek change are increasingly launching these kinds of actions before they have developed real staying power or a strategy for transformation. ... But [mass demonstrations are not always the most effective way of applying pressure to elites, particularly when they are not sustained over time.] Other techniques of noncooperation, such as general strikes and stay-at-homes, can be much more disruptive to economic life and thus bring about more immediate effects.

Even when the overwhelming majority of activists remain nonviolent, civil-resistance movements that mix in some armed violence ― such as street fighting with police or attacking counter-protesters ― tend to be less successful in the end than movements that remain disciplined in rejecting violence. [This is because violence tends to increase the overall suppression of a movement's participants while making it harder for us to regard these participants as innocent victims of this brutality.] Authoritarian regimes can cast violent protesters as threats to public order.

Freud may indeed have wished to see Andreas-Salomé in person, but he knew this was mere fantasy. Between him in Vienna and her in Berlin were hundreds of miles, the physical limitations of age, and Adolf Hitler. There was little chance they would ever see one another again. [It's easy to picture Freud worrying about his friend's surgery, spending hours sunk in his armchair, sighing, "If only I could see her once more".]

The teenage Mary Beard's wish was a fantasy, an imagining of how things could be better but in fact were definitely not going to be anytime soon. Our contemporary thirteen-year-old's wish is instead a desire. [She wants a thing that she very well could have, if only something (or someone) were not keeping it out of her hands.] The nearby reality of a wish's fulfillment changes its status from fantasy to desire, and so makes it reasonable to be unhappy in entirely new ways.

Organizations, while they are admittedly populated by empathetic humans, are not quite the emotional sum of their human parts. Organizational apology impulses are not powered by pure empathy. The server at the fast-food counter may well say "sorry for your wait," but it's simply part of the buying process. [The odds of that server genuinely empathizing with you as you stare at the menu are slim to none.] As consumers, we understand that completely. "Sorry for your wait" is not an apology from which they are seeking forgiveness.

There are two types of failure for which an organization will apologize: operational failure and cultural failure. [Operational failures, those everyday errors like defective goods, missing deliveries, and late departures, are easy to understand and the associated apologies are normally easy to accept ― given that the consequences fall below a certain level of severity.] A 1992 study into consumer responses to operational failures found that consumer perceptions of an organization that has committed an operational failure can be restored completely, provided there's an outcome that fosters a sense of "procedural fairness."

Almost all of these apologies were accompanied by offers of refunds, replacements, compensation or, at the very least, an offer from the retailer to investigate further. These kinds of apologies are embedded into an organization's communications model. The funny thing with these customer satisfaction apologies, though, is that they make no difference. [The organizations might as well not bother.] When it comes to minor operational failures, it's not giving an apology that matters; it's the compensation. Sorry is just a word to signal "we've heard you."

Blogger and father of two Jim Coulson thinks the ban is a good idea. He dislikes advertisements that perpetuate stereotypes about dads being "useless." "[Each stereotype is small, but small things build up, and those small things are what inform the subconscious,]" he told the BBC. "That's the problem... that advertisements rely on stereotypes. We know why they do it, because it's easy."

Fernando Desouches, managing director of marketing agency New Macho, which specializes in targeting men, said this was an example of a past advertisement that would not pass the new ASA legislation. [He said it showed how easy it can be for "deeply held views on gender to come through in an ad that claims to be caring and nurturing of future generations."] He was "unsurprised it generated a backlash."

Pets also symbolically reinforce the notion that vulnerable groups can be owned and fully controlled for the pleasure and convenience of more privileged and powerful groups. ... Social workers further recognize the powerful link between pet abuse and the abuse of children and women in domestic settings. [The idea that it is acceptable to manipulate the bodies and minds of a vulnerable group to suit the interests of more privileged groups is consistent with the culture of oppression.]

In its original definition, "social capital" was a value-neutral characterization of how social networks promote the transformation of personal relationships into economic or cultural capital. As popularized by Putnam, social capital was transformed into a measure of participation, civic engagement, social trust, and inclusion ― all desirable traits that lent it an air of moral approval. [The universal appeal of a strong community life drives Putnam's theory, even if his expansion of the concept of social capital into something positive ignores the problems its single-minded pursuit can introduce.]

A more nuanced view of social capital, and how it may be measuring deep-seated community characteristics that are beyond our ability to directly alter, should make us skeptical about the power of social capital to achieve goals like increasing inclusiveness and creating wider networks. ... [When groups rich in social capital develop an identity that stresses exclusion and use policy measures to prevent access by non-members, the accumulation of advantage in networks defined by opposition to classes and neighborhoods other than their own becomes self-perpetuating.]

The face acts "like a road sign to affect the traffic that's going past it," says Alain Fridlund, a psychology professor who wrote a recent study with Crivelli. "Our faces are ways we direct the course of a social interaction." That's not to say that we actively try to manipulate others with our facial expressions. Our smiles and frowns may well be unconscious. But [our expressions are less a mirror of what's going on inside than a signal we're sending about what we want to happen next.] Your best 'disgusted' face, for example, might show that you're not happy with the way the conversation is going ― and that you want it to take a different course.

For most of us, though, the new research may have most of an effect on how we interpret social interactions. [It turns out that we might communicate better if we saw faces not as mirroring hidden emotions ― but rather as actively trying to speak to us.] People should read faces "kind of like a road sign," says Fridlund. "It's like a switch on a railroad track: do we go here or do we go there in the conversation?"

This is among the most urgent and pressing issues facing America today, and acknowledging the breadth and depth of the problem changes the way we look at poverty. For decades, we have failed to fully appreciate how deeply housing is involved in the creation of poverty. ... [Until recently, we simply didn't know how immense this problem was, or how serious the consequences, unless we had suffered them ourselves.] For years, social scientists, journalists, and policymakers all but ignored eviction, making it one of the least studied processes affecting the lives of poor families.

Focus groups came, over the course of the last century, to shape almost every aspect of our lives. Almost nothing is launched into the world without a focus group. [Since the late 1980s, they have affected even the political discussions that ultimately determine what kind of society we can have, not to mention the toothpaste we use, the TV dramas we watch, the news media we consume, and the video games we play.] Focus groups have also helped to create and nourish a seemingly boundless culture of consultation ...

Clients also resent the fact that they, the experts, have to listen to people who know nothing about their field. Kara Jesella, a former editor at Teen Vogue, has been on the client side of the focus group process for several media companies, and described the teenage girls that regularly tested that magazine as "vicious". She continued: "You know what? In all the ones I've seen, people really like to criticise. [There's way more criticising than saying: 'I like this.']" She recalled the awkwardness of the situation. "We're sitting right there, and they're finding fault with something they know we created."

An eco-travel specialist advises travelers to do your research to determine whether green travel options are legitimate. For example, many hotels promote their Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification from the U.S. Green Building Council ... [When it comes to airlines and cruise ship companies, there's a consensus among experts that there's almost no such thing as green ― only shades of fake green.] It's said that there's a lot of greenwashing and both airplanes and cruise ship companies pollute to such an extent that some travelers find it difficult to justify a reservation.

Whenever they are given the chance to participate, Kenyans in particular, and Africans in general, take elections very seriously. Stories of people walking for miles to vote or standing in line for hours are clichés because they are true. ... African elections can be deeply moving. [People treat democracy with a great respect that has long faded in the West.] But there is a gap between people's aspirations and the poor excuse for democracy that is too often provided. People, it is said, get the government they deserve. In Africa, nothing could be further from the truth.

Tales of "tribal" violence sometimes lead to the false conclusion that Africa is "not ready" for democracy. Indeed, Africa's so-called tribes are better seen as mini-nations with completely distinct languages. [That people vote along ethnic lines is often entirely rational, much like people in the West vote according to class or region.] Africa is no different.

Of course, class prejudice isn't always as crude as this, but this comment undoubtedly reflects an undercurrent of hatred in British society. But it was only the tip of the iceberg. When the dark truth of the Matthews affair came to light, it triggered an attack in the media on working-class communities like Dewsbury. ... But, as it was to turn out, there was a big difference between the two cases. Unlike Madeleine McCann, Shannon was found alive on March 14, 2008. ... [With Shannon safe, it was no longer considered tasteless to openly criticize her community.] The affair became a useful case study into Britain's indulgence of an amoral class.

The new era of the Internet, the smartphone, and the PC has had radical effects on who we are and how we relate to each other. The old boundaries of space and time seem collapsed thanks to the digital technology that structures everyday life. We can communicate instantly across both vast and minute distances. Philosophers, social theorists, psychologists, and anthropologists have all spoken of the new reality that we inhabit as a result of these changes. But [what if, rather than focusing on the new promises or discontents of contemporary civilization, we see today's changes primarily as changes in what human beings do with their hands?] The digital age may have transformed many aspects of our experience, but its most obvious yet neglected feature is that it allows people to keep their hands busy in a variety of unprecedented ways.

Less often quoted, but perhaps more important, is the section of Kennedy's opinion which lists the "material burdens" placed on same-sex couples previously denied the right to marry: exclusion from the benefits and rewards given to workers and their spouses through retirement savings programs, health insurance, and tax policy, for example. "Marriage remains a building block of our national community," Kennedy explained. "Just as a couple vows to support each other, so does society pledge to support the couple, offering symbolic recognition and material benefits to protect and nourish the union." [At first glance, Kennedy's claim that the material benefits offered to married couples by the government and employers are there to "nourish" each union seems like nothing more than an idealistic way of saying something obvious: Americans know that there are economic rewards to marriage.] But Kennedy's word choice was not random.

Today, Matthew knows it was one of the first signs that he was suffering from "confabulation" as a result of his brain injury. [People affected with the condition may lie to or mislead others, even though they don't mean to, because some fundamental problems with the way they process memories mean they often struggle to tell fact from a fiction invented by their unconscious mind.] The discovery was another painful blow to Matthew.

Discovering this tendency for confabulation was deeply unsettling; it was as if he had discovered his mind was no longer his own. ... [Often the false memories would be built around an expectation of the way an event would have turned out.] When he had returned to work, for instance, he had worried that his bosses would not be sympathetic to his difficulties. "I knew my employers were tough-minded business people, quite harsh, very strict with work. So my brain had already put them in a specific box and expected that they were going to react in a certain way."

As former Boeing scientist and New York Times writer Dennis Overbye notes, this information stream contains "more and more information about our lives ― where we shop and what we buy, indeed, where we are right now ― the economy, the genomes of countless organisms we can't even name yet, galaxies full of stars we haven't counted, traffic jams in Singapore and the weather on Mars." ... [Information scientists have measured all this: in 2011, Americans took in five times as much information every day as they did in 1986 ― the equivalent of 175 newspapers.]

Music, unlike sports, is not subject to the usual laws of competition; music has to function as a communal experience. ... In the process, they have succeeded in overcoming barriers. Music has taught them not only the possibility but the necessity to listen to other voices. This, in a certain way, is more important than the fundamental democratic right to vote. In music, every voice has a responsibility towards the other, in speed, dynamic and intensity. [The difference between just producing beautiful sound and making music is that the latter means striving to create an organic whole of all the different elements.] There should always be a connection between the different elements in music-making, without any separation from the context.

Not only do consumers have power and influence, but traditional state and international regulation has failed to ensure ethical manufacturing. Global production systems continue to challenge the capacities of states, international organizations such as the United Nations, and NGOs to limit labor and environmental exploitation and human rights violations. ... [Survey after survey shows that 30-70 percent of consumers want to buy greener, healthier, more socially responsible products, but there is a massive gap between what consumers say they care about and what they actually buy.] Yet it would be an error to believe that consumers are powerless to create more fair and green manufacturing and supply chains.

The children who had been praised for their cleverness worried more about failure, tended to choose tasks that confirmed what they already knew, and displayed less tenacity when the problems got harder. Ultimately, the thrill created by being told 'You're so clever' gave way to an increase in anxiety and a drop in self-esteem, motivation and performance. When asked by the researchers to write to children in another school, recounting their experience, some of the 'clever' children lied, inflating their scores. [In short, all it took to knock these youngsters' confidence, to make them so unhappy that they lied, was one sentence of praise.]

It is not unusual to often hear Nigerian men say things like: "Oh, I met this beautiful girl the other day, she had a great body. . . and her skin was so light." But then these same men would hypocritically be outraged if a Nigerian woman, especially one in the public eye, openly admitted to bleaching her skin. If skin tone didn't matter at all to Nigerian men, skin lightening creams and soaps wouldn't be flying off the shelves over here as they are right now. In Nigerian music videos too, one can notice a glaring preference for lighter-skinned females. The slight suspicion remains that [my society is more confused about questions of identity and its perception of beauty than it cares to admit.]

Private developers have taken advantage of various programs to construct more than 100 mixed-income buildings like the Chelsea Park over the past two decades, mostly in Manhattan and higher-class parts of Brooklyn. ... The competition for these units in these buildings, often called 80/20s, is fierce. Thousands of New Yorkers apply, but there are strict income requirements. Applicants must provide various documents, such as pay stubs, telephone bills and bank statements. [Making even one mistake, such as mailing an application by express rather than by regular mail, can exclude you from a lottery.] Developers are generally required to give preference to those who live in the area.

[Like most New Yorkers who live very near each other, residents of mixed-income buildings rarely communicate beyond a polite nod of the head or a brief wave.] And while they may live in the same neighborhood, they tend to shop at different stores. Yet while they may not meet often, there is occasional friction between the two groups.

When Ms. Fermin was applying for the studio on North Sixth Street, for example, she was rejected twice and reapplied both times. "[At one point they said I made too much, then they said I made too little, then finally they said I made the right amount.]"

In practice, though, this rarely happens. Instead, lowball offers ― anything below $2 ― are routinely rejected. Think for a moment about what this means. People would rather have nothing than let their "partners" walk away with too much of the money. They will give up free money to punish what they perceive as greedy or selfish behavior. ... Now, this is a long way from the image of "rational" human behavior. [The players in the ultimatum game are not choosing what's materially best for them, and their choices are clearly completely dependent on what the other person does.] People play the ultimatum game this way all across the developed world.

If London at mid-century simultaneously pointed backwards and forwards, it was also a city of contrasts, and [these contrasts fascinated visiting photographers, who took opportunities to present the opposites that made London the city it was.] Certain images of the city ― the red bus, Big Ben, the gentleman in a striped suit ― have come to stand for Britain as a whole. At the same time, the constant flows of people, of commodities, and of cultures into and through London, have marked it out as foreign and alien.

Happiness is, of course, hard to measure or define. [Philosophers have debated what it is for centuries, and even if we were to define it simply as a greater frequency of positive feelings than negative ones, when we ask people if they are happy we are asking them to arrive at some sort of average over many moods and moments.] Maybe I was upset earlier in the day but then was cheered up by a bit of good news, so what am I really?

[Recently, a film crew with whom I was working chose a location where we felt sure there should be a minimum of noise, a huge empty field.] We arrived early in the morning to make doubly sure of peace and quiet ― only to discover, when we arrived, a lone Scotsman practicing the bagpipes. "Sod's Law!" we all shouted.

Second, there has been a quality-cost revolution resulting in a rapid increase in productivity levels and quality standards. The new competition is no longer based on quality or cost but on quality and cost, offering companies more strategic choices about their global distribution of high-skill as well as low-skill work. Western companies are developing more sophisticated approaches to outsourcing more of their highly skilled jobs to low-cost locations. [As a result, many of the things we only thought could be done in the West can now be done anywhere in the world not only more cheaply but sometimes better.]

In a sense, what they have done is to re-create the spirit that inspired the city-states of medieval and early modern Europe. [Globalization, and particularly the digitization of information, means that cities have again begun to owe more to their ability to attract international markets than to their direct links with local economies.]

If current trends continue, there will be many more cities but also, quite likely, a bigger contrast between relative winners and losers. [Just as globalization subjects companies to fiercer competition, increasing further the returns to successful businesses and reducing those to failing ones, so the gaps between the cities that are winning and those that are losing will become increasingly obvious.]

However, living in a hurricane in the age of social media raises anxiety to a new level. [Wherever you sheltered in the city last week, there was almost no escape from the storm of information, debate and analysis flying around.] Television and radio offered non-stop reporting, which became distinctly hysterical. The internet provided multiple tools to track the hurricane in real time. And as it approached, a storm of social media messages developed, as New Yorkers 'flocked' together, trying to make sense of events.

Greater inequality between people seems to heighten their social evaluation anxieties by increasing the importance of social status. [Instead of accepting each other as equals on the basis of our common humanity as we might in more equal settings, measuring each other's worth becomes more important as status differences widen.] We come to see social position as a more important feature of a person's identity.

There are good medical reasons to worry. Most scientists agree that cloning is unsafe and likely to produce offspring with serious abnormalities and birth defects. (Dolly died an early death.) [But suppose cloning technology improves to the point where the risks are no greater than with natural pregnancy.] Would human cloning still be unacceptable? What exactly is wrong with creating a child who is a genetic twin of his or her parent, or of an older sister and brother who has tragically died, or, for that matter, of an admired scientist, sports star, or celebrity?

Second, even if a concern for autonomy explains some of our worries about order-made children, it cannot explain our moral hesitation about people who seek genetic enhancements for themselves. Not all genetic interventions are passed down the generations. Gene therapy on nonreproductive cells, such as muscle cells or brain cells, works by repairing or replacing defective genes. The moral dilemma arises when people use such therapy not to cure a disease but to reach beyond health, to enhance their physical or intellectual capacities, to lift themselves above the standard. ... [An athlete who genetically enhances his muscles does not hand down his added speed and strength to his offspring; he cannot be accused of imposing unnecessary talents on his children that may push them toward an athletic career.] And yet there is still something unsettling about the prospect of genetically altered athletes.